Mars Colonization Timeline

Have you ever imagined how humanity will explore and gradually settle the closest potentially habitable planet to Earth? We have. Inspired by FutureTimeline.net and the Integrated Space Plan, we have crafted a speculative timeline of human exploration and colonization of Mars, blending optimistic tech forecasts with real-world progress. Only the most pivotal and groundbreaking events are highlighted.

The timeline, first published in October 2016, is regularly updated to reflect the latest developments. Since its debut, the timeline has always been the most popular section on humanMars.net, dozens tune in daily, inspired by the possibilities awaiting us on the Red Planet. Last update was made on September 23, 2025.

Go to: 2020s – 2030s – 2040s – 2050s – 2060s – 2070s – 2080s – 2090s
– 22nd century – 23rd century

2010s – Humanity regaining interest in Mars

Humanity's interest in Mars sparks anew in the 2010s, driven by the Curiosity rover's quest for ancient life, the cultural phenomenon of The Martian, SpaceX's visionary colonization blueprints, and robotic missions probing the planet's secrets, laying the groundwork for bolder ventures ahead.

2012 – NASA’s Curiosity rover lands in Gale Crater to study the climate, the role of water, and the geology of Mars, while determining whether the planet could ever have supported life and helping prepare for future human exploration.
2015 – Ridley Scott's hard sci-fi film The Martian, depicting an astronaut's struggle to survive on Mars after being left behind, hits theaters. Based on the 2011 novel of the same name by Andy Weir, The Martian is the first Mars-related film since 1990's Total Recall to gain wider recognition and popularity among the general public.
2016 – Elon Musk unveils SpaceX’s initial design for a gigantic rocket (eventually to be called Starship) aimed at enabling Mars colonization and interplanetary travel.
2016 – The ESA and Roscosmos ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter successfully enters Mars orbit to search for methane and other trace gases as potential signs of biological or geological activity, though the Schiaparelli lander crashes on the Martian surface during an entry, descent, and landing technology demonstration.
2018 – NASA’s InSight lander touches down at Elysium Planitia on Mars, deploying seismometers and heat probes to advance seismic, geological, and interior structure studies of the planet.
2019 – SpaceX conducts initial test flights of the Starhopper, a Starship prototype, at Boca Chica, Texas, and begins constructing full-scale Starship prototypes.

2020s – Laying the groundwork for human arrival

The 2020s mark a surge in robotic exploration, with probes and rovers gathering crucial samples and insights, as Starship masters orbital and lunar challenges, bridging the gap from exciting vision to humanity's first steps on the Red Planet.

2021 – The United Arab Emirates’ Hope probe enters Mars orbit, enhancing atmospheric research by capturing the first complete daily and seasonal cycles of Mars' atmosphere, including dust storms and weather patterns.
2021 – NASA’s Mars 2020 Perseverance rover lands in Jezero Crater (Western Isidis Planitia) to collect samples for future retrieval, accompanied by the Ingenuity drone-helicopter, which achieved the first powered, controlled flight on another planet for aerial reconnaissance.
2021 – NASA selects SpaceX to develop the Lunar Starship, a lunar-optimized version of Starship for the Artemis program required to be capable of landing at least two astronauts on the Moon by the mid-2020s.
2021 – SpaceX achieves the first successful high-altitude test flight and landing of a Starship prototype, SN15, reaching 10 km altitude and demonstrating controlled descent and flip maneuver for vertical touchdown.
2021 – China’s first Mars mission, Tianwen-1, lands the Zhurong rover at Utopia Planitia, where it explored subsurface structures and discovered buried polygonal features possibly from ancient water activity.
2023 – India’s Chandrayaan-3 achieves the first successful landing at the lunar south pole region – the future area of first human bases on the Moon – deploying a rover to analyze soil and confirm water ice presence.
2026 – Four Artemis II astronauts aboard Orion spacecraft orbit the Moon, being the first humans to leave Low Earth orbit since the Apollo 17 mission in December 1972.
2026 – SpaceX’s prototype Starship completes its first successful orbital test flight, with both the Super Heavy booster and Starship second stage landing back at the launch tower, aiming for full and rappid reusability of both rocket stages.

2026 – SpaceX demonstrates successful in-orbit fuel transfer between two Starships, a critical step for interplanetary missions.
2027 – Japan’s Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) probe lands on Phobos to release a rover, collect a sample and return it to Earth in 2031, aiming to determine if the moon originated from Mars or is a captured asteroid.
2029 – SpaceX’s Starship deploys Marslink relay satellite system between the orbits of Earth and Mars for broadband communications between the two planets even during periods when the planets are on opposite sides of the Sun, extending Starlink tech for Mars connectivity.
2029 – Multiple uncrewed demonstration Starships attempt Mars landings, with one succeeding undamaged, marking a pivotal step toward human missions.
2029 – ESA’s ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover lands on Mars at Oxia Planum, equipped with a drill to search for signs of past life in ancient clay deposits up to 2 meters deep.
2029 – China’s sample-return mission, Tianwen-3, lands on Mars to collect samples with a rover and deliver them back to Earth in 2031 to analyze samples for biosignatures.
2029 – SpaceX’s uncrewed Lunar Starship lands on the rim of Shackleton Crater near the lunar south pole, testing lunar landing capabilities as part of Artemis preparations for crewed missions and potential base setup.
2029 – SpaceX’s first crewed Starship completes a successful orbital flight, validating human spaceflight systems.
2029 – China lands the Lanyue lander near the lunar south pole with a two-person crew, marking humanity’s return to the Moon on the 80th anniversary of the People’s Republic of China.

2030s – First humans on Mars

By 2035, the 2030s deliver humanity's historic first boots on Mars, launching Mars Base Alpha via robotic forerunners, in-situ resource utilization, solar power, and nascent greenhouses, bolstered by lunar outposts like Artemis Base Camp to forge a lasting interplanetary foothold.

2030 – SpaceX's Lunar Starship touches down on the rim of Shackleton Crater under NASA's Artemis program, marking the first woman on the Moon. The week-long mission focuses on exploring the polar region and sampling water ice.
2030 – As the aging International Space Station is decommissioned, its functions are progressively assumed by multiple compact private space stations, supporting microgravity research and tourism, and enabling continuous human presence in orbit, fostering private innovation and crew training for interplanetary missions.
2031 – Several uncrewed Starships touch down individually on Mars at the most promising locations for humanity's inaugural base; each carries a dozen Tesla Optimus humanoid robots, a compact nuclear power reactor, and a propellant plant for generating liquid oxygen and methane.
2032 – Multiple Lunar Starships descend to the rim of Shackleton Crater, delivering initial modules for Artemis Base Camp – the first human outpost on the Moon.
2032 – Following comprehensive ground tests across all landing sites, the final location for the future "Mars Base Alpha" is chosen. Refueled with local propellant, several Starships from non-selected sites launch from Mars and successfully return to Earth the following year, proving round-trip capabilities between Mars and Earth.
2033 – Several uncrewed Starships arrive at the designated site for Mars Base Alpha: two backup crew ships (having validated the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) en route, successfully recycling 95%+ resources during the flight) laden with Optimus robots, plus cargo ships bearing rovers, mining / tunneling droids, and solar panels for the first human expedition.
2033 – India's Mangalyaan 2 rover, accompanied by a compact drone-helicopter, lands on Mars, targeting astrobiology with aerial scouting (like Ingenuity) and enhancing global Mars data for collaborative exploration.
2034 – Robotic operations clear and prepare multiple landing fields at the Mars Base Alpha site, leveling regolith and seting beacons, in anticipation of the human mission the following year.
2035 – A constellation of Marslink satellites are deployed in Low Mars Orbit, providing both Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) service (GPS alternative) and high-speed, low-latency broadband communications. Navigating Mars becomes remarkably reliable with cm-accuracy navigation and real-time connectivity, with potential challenges only in lava tubes or narrow canyons.
2035 – In a NASA-backed endeavor, two SpaceX crew Starships carrying 12 astronauts each land at Mars Base Alpha – heralding the first humans on Mars. These crewed vessels, doubling as interim habitats, are joined by cargo ships, one equipped with components for an In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) system to foster early self-sufficiency.

2035 – The Artemis Base Camp on the Moon achieves permanent habitation with rotating crews every few months.
2036 – A solar array with dust-resistant coating is constructed at Mars Base Alpha to augment energy from the nuclear reactor aboard the cargo Starship that arrived in 2031.
2036 – Two human outposts, both nuclear-powered, now dot the lunar south pole region as China, alongside international partners, establishes a distinct lunar base – the International Lunar Research Station – at Amundsen Crater, roughly 100 miles from Artemis Base Camp.
2036 – Once the optimal site is verified, water ice mining commences near Mars Base Alpha. An initial small-scale ISRU system, featuring atmospheric separators and a chemical / propellant plant, is assembled to produce and store water, nitrogen, argon, liquid methane and oxygen, reducing resupply needs.
2037 – Multiple sintered regolith landing / launch pads for forthcoming Starship missions are constructed several miles from Mars Base Alpha, alowing 10+ ships per synod.
2037 – One crew Starship from the initial human landing lifts off back to Earth with a modest crew complement. The remaining Starships persist on Mars as habitat backups and a source of spare parts.
2037 – A second contingent of 60 astronauts, workers, and scientists arrives aboard three Starships at Mars Base Alpha.
2038 – The first modular ground habitats and a hydroponic greenhouse are erected to furnish Mars Base Alpha with locally cultivated vegan food. "The Mars Society" inaugurates its first Martian chapter :)
2038 – Equipment for Martian regolith extraction, chemical separation, and storage is assembled, enabling the utilization of extracted elements in the greenhouse and ISRU system. Leaching Martian regolith yield nutrients from perchlorates for fertilizers, integrating with ISRU to cut Earth dependency for construction and agriculture.
2038 – NASA's research Mars Surface Field Station is founded at Mars Base Alpha, somewhat mirroring Antarctic scientific stations.
2039 – Multiple space agencies join NASA in funding scientific endeavors at Mars Base Alpha and facilitate the transit of their scientists between Earth and Mars.

2040s – Expanding the first human base on Mars

The 2040s see Mars Base Alpha blossom from fragile outpost to vibrant settlement, its population swelling past 800 via relentless Starship arrivals, as breakthroughs in resource extraction, aquaculture, and lab-grown foods enable the planet's first birth, classroom, and resort, heralding a multiplanetary era.

2040 – The first four fully utilised Starships with 25 passengers each arrive at Mars Base Alpha. Although Starship's capacity falls short of initial goals, it is more than offset by SpaceX's capacity to produce and launch a large number of Starships in a single synod.
2040 – China establishes an independent robotic Mars Research Station, paving the way for future human settlement in a decade.
2040 – NASA's Mars Surface Field Station is transformed into an international scientific research hub, with scientist crews rotating every Earth-Mars synod (26 months).
2041 – The ISRU capabilities at Mars Base Alpha are enhanced to produce not only air, water, and methalox fuel but also steel, bricks, cement, basic fertilizers, plastics, and silica products, such as glass panels, leveraging Martian regolith for construction materials. Large-scale 3D printers are assembled to support construction efforts, enabling efficient on-site manufacturing.
2042 – Starships carrying 150 human colonists and workers land at Mars Base Alpha, boosting its population to over 250. Cargo Starships deliver heavy-duty construction and tunneling equipment, crucial for habitat expansion.
2042 – The first large-scale orbital fuel depot for hydrolox and methalox rocket engines is completed in Low Earth Orbit. Hydrogen and oxygen are sourced from the Moon and Near-Earth asteroids, while methane is supplied from Earth.
2043 – Cyanobacteria are integrated into the ISRU processes at Mars Base Alpha to enhance resource production, utilizing atmospheric CO2 and Martian regolith for oxygen and biomass output.
2043 – A fish farm is established at Mars Base Alpha, diversifying the local food supply through aquaculture concepts adapted for low-gravity environments. The hydroponic greenhouse is significantly expanded to meet growing demand, integrating aquaponics for sustainable nutrient cycling.
2044 – The first child is born on Mars at Mars Base Alpha. His/her eventual journey to Earth would pose risks due to bones and organs adapted to Mars' lower gravity, potentially causing muscle atrophy and cardiovascular issues in Earth's stronger field.
2044 – Starships carrying 200 human colonists, workers, and individual wealthy tourists arrive at Mars Base Alpha.
2045 – Several small satellite bases for scientific, mining, and other purposes are established within tens of miles from Mars Base Alpha, facilitating resource extraction and research in nearby mineral-rich areas.
2045 – A transparent, radiation-filtering geodesic dome with a garden is constructed at Mars Base Alpha. Construction begins on a new underground section with expanded habitats and workspaces, increasing the base’s capacity to 1'000 residents.

2045 – A cultured meat "farm" is built at Mars Base Alpha, introducing artificial meat to the colonists' diet, produced via cellular agriculture to minimize resource use in space.
2046 – The new underground section of Mars Base Alpha is completed, offering spacious living and working areas with full radiation protection from overlying regolith layers that block cosmic rays.
2046 – The first luxury hotel opens on the outskirts of Mars Base Alpha, catering to wealthy visitors, capitalizing on emerging space tourism trends.
2046 – Starships with 250 passengers arrive at Mars Base Alpha.
2047 – The first expedition to the summit of Olympus Mons, the tallest planetary mountain in the Solar System, is successfully completed, feasible with pressurized rovers for the multi-day ascent.
2047 – The first mass driver, utilizing electromagnetic acceleration, is constructed at Artemis Base Camp on the Moon to launch processed oxygen and hydrogen to fuel depots in Low Earth Orbit.
2047 – Marking the centenary of the Republic of India, it establishes its own independent lunar base, the third human outpost near the lunar South Pole.
2048 – The first school opens at Mars Base Alpha, enabling children to travel to Mars with their parents and fostering education in the growing multi-generational settlement.
2048 – Starships with 350 passengers arrive at Mars Base Alpha, which, along with nearby satellite bases, now supports a population exceeding 800.
2048 – Ahead of the 100th anniversary of the People's Republic of China, first taikonauts land on Mars at China's robotic Mars Research Station, thousands of miles from Mars Base Alpha.
2049 – A large deposit of minerals with high concentration of rare metals is discovered hundreds of miles from Mars Base Alpha. A research Mining Base Beta is established to exploit this resource, using ISRU techniques for on-site processing.

2050s – Mars gets crowded

Expansion accelerates in the 2050s, turning Mars into a networked society of multinational outposts, where Starship convoys ferry thousands, orbital spaceport and fusion energy drive progress, and the population tops 7'000, signaling the Red Planet's stride toward autonomy.

2050 – A dedicated police force is established at Mars Base Alpha, assuming security duties previously managed by SpaceX-hired guards, as the growing settlement requires formal law enforcement to maintain order amid rapid population influx.
2050 – With Earth and Mars at their closest proximity since colonization began, 20 Starships carrying 500 passengers arrive at Mars Base Alpha.
2050 – China deploys 50 workers to its Mars Research Station, laying the foundation for a rapidly expanding base.
2050 – Representing several space agencies and asteroid mining companies, Blue Origin's crewed spaceship arrives in Mars orbit near Phobos, delivering initial modules for the Free Spaceport of Phobos project. This station, featuring spinning sections with Mars-level artificial gravity (0.38g), serves as a waystation and fuel-and-repair depot for spacecraft bound for Mars, the Main Asteroid Belt, and beyond.
2051 – An international human mission to Phobos and Deimos is conducted, operated by Blue Origin from the Free Spaceport of Phobos construction site.
2051 – A robotic water ice mining station is established on Phobos to supply water and propellant for the nearby Free Spaceport of Phobos, leveraging ISRU techniques essential for sustainable off-world operations.
2052 – The landing pads near Mars Base Alpha, used for two decades by crew and cargo Starships, are upgraded into a small spaceport with pressurized skybridges for passengers and cargo. The facility accommodates the newly developed Heavy Starship, a next-generation spacecraft with an 18-meter core diameter, spacious living quarters for up to 200 passengers, and artificial centrifugal gravity of 0.38g when in duo ship mode (both spinning around a common center of mass).
2052 – A public transport route is established between Mars Base Alpha and Mining Base Beta.
2052 – Four Heavy Starships carrying 800 passengers, including SpaceX founder Elon Musk at age 81, land at Mars Base Alpha. Cargo Heavy Starships deliver components for a nuclear fusion reactor.
2053 – An additional 150 workers arrive at China's Mars Research Station in an effort to rapidly catch-up with SpaceX, which the Asian superpower sees as the US's arm on Mars.
2053 – With new modules delivered and maintained by Blue Origin, the Free Spaceport of Phobos becomes fully operational, enabling rapid expansion of robotic asteroid mining in the Main Asteroid Belt.
2053 – Blue Origin's lander conducts a scouting mission on Mars to identify the optimal location for the Blue Mars base.

2054 – A short hyperloop line connecting Mars Base Alpha to its spaceport is completed, adapting Earth-based vacuum tube transport for low-gravity, near-vacuum Martian efficiency.
2054 – A new, partially underground section of Mars Base Alpha is completed, increasing its population capacity to 4'000, in preparation for the projected population growth this decade.
2055 – Five Heavy Starships carrying 1'000 passengers arrive at Mars Base Alpha, while another, contracted by a major terrestrial mining company, delivers 200 passengers (mostly miners) to Mining Base Beta. The population of Mars Base Alpha exceeds 2'000, with 250 additional colonists at nearby satellite bases and 350 at Mining Base Beta.
2055 – An additional 250 workers and colonists land at China's Mars Research Station.
2055 – Blue Origin's fleet, carrying 100 workers, arrives at the Free Spaceport of Phobos, with personnel shuttled down to establish the Blue Mars base, approximately thousand miles from Mars Base Alpha.
2055 – A nuclear fusion power station becomes operational several miles from Mars Base Alpha, significantly enhancing energy availability. The station is suplied by a deuterium separation facility, recently opened at Mining Base Beta.
2056 – A circumnavigational land expedition across Mars is completed for the first time, demonstrating improved rover capabilities in harsh terrain.
2056 – With increased power, the ISRU and industrial capabilities at Mars Base Alpha are greatly expanded, utilizing resources harvested and processed locally and at nearby satellite bases. A solar panel assembly factory becomes the first Martian facility to manufacture complex products.
2056 – A mass driver is constructed at the human base in the Sea of Tranquility on the Moon to launch harvested helium-3 for use in fusion power plants.
2057 – A total of 1'200 colonists arrive at Mars Base Alpha, 200 at Mining Base Beta, 150 at Blue Mars, and 500 at China's base. There are now more than 5'000 humans permanently or temporarily living on Mars.
2058 – The rover repair depot at Mars Base Alpha is upgraded into a Tesla rover factory, dubbed Gigafactory Mars, enabling local production vital for expansive surface mobility.
2059 – A total of 1'600 colonists land at Mars Base Alpha, 400 at Mining Base Beta, 250 at Blue Mars, and 1'000 at China's base.
2059 – India deploys 100 workers to establish its own Martian base, located within thousand miles of Mars Base Alpha.
2059 – The first public suborbital shuttle route is established between Mars Base Alpha and Blue Mars base, enhancing inter-base connectivity.

2060s – Nuclear fusion spaceships accelerate colonization of Mars

Fusion-powered ships halve transit times in the 2060s, igniting a demographic surge from 7'000 to over 40'000 as diverse nations enter the fray. Mars City rises under a sprawling polymer dome, linked by suburban rails, ushering in city councils and universities on the crimson world.

■  Near Mars Base Alpha, a large-scale, transparent, radiation-filtering dome, utilizing advanced shape-memory polymers for thermal adaptation to Mars' extreme temperature swings, is erected over an impact crater spanning more than a mile. The dome encloses gardens with features like artificial waterfalls and buildings designed to house up to 20'000 residents. Mars Base Alpha, the new dome, and nearby satellite bases are unified as Mars City.
■  A new generation of SpaceX nuclear fusion-powered spaceships, halving interplanetary transit times, begins operating between Earth's orbital stations and the Free Spaceport of Phobos, with passengers shuttled to Martian spaceports. Starships and Heavy Starships are retired from SpaceX’s fleet after four decades of service and sold to various interested countries and companies.
■  A hyperloop line and heavy cargo train tracks are constructed, connecting Mars City to the industrial complex at Mining Base Beta.
■  A modest planetary defense system is established, comprising ground tracking stations and orbiting satellites equipped with missiles and lasers to neutralize meteoroids threatening Martian colonies.
■  One of satellite bases near Mars City is sold to Brazil, which expands it into an independent base using Heavy Starships acquired from SpaceX.
■  The United Arab Emirates, having purchased Starship family rockets, establishes its own base on Mars, named New Dubai.

■  As Mars City grows, corporate hierarchies and direct democracy become insufficient for governance. The first city council is elected to manage local affairs.
■  An international human mission to Ceres stops at the Free Spaceport of Phobos for resupply and to onboard additional Martian crew members.
■  Martian-born individuals travel to Earth for the first time, using exoskeletons to cope with Earth’s higher gravity.
■  To address the challenges of Martian-born youth accessing higher education on Earth, the first university is established in Mars City, featuring asynchronous modules to bridge interplanetary communication delays when lecturers from Earth are involved.
■  The expanded Free Spaceport of Phobos evolves into a key space logistics hub, supporting Martian colonies and mining operations in the Main Asteroid Belt. Several more space-faring nations begin participating in the spaceport project.
■  European Space Agency establishes an independent base on Mars.
■  Additional orbital space stations are constructed around Mars for in-space manufacturing, tourism, and other activities.
■  Commercial enterprises from various nations establish branches and operations on Mars.
■  Nuclear fusion-powered spaceships, reducing travel time and expanding launch windows, drive a surge in colonization. In the 2060s, the human population on Mars explodes from approximately 7'000 to over 40'000, with Mars City alone hosting 20'000 residents.

2070s – Take your once-in-a-lifetime vacation on Mars!

Luxury beckons in the 2070s as Mars becomes a premier getaway, luring adventurers on safaris across some of the Solar System's most impressive natural wonders. Settlements sprawl, planet's population climbing to 150'000, with early terraforming trials fanning visions of a lush, breathable world ahead.

■  Two additional colonies construct large-scale domes – China's colony and Blue Mars. A hyperloop line is established, linking Mars City with Blue Mars.
■  Tourism from Earth flourishes on Mars. Although the trip is still expensive and only the rich can afford it. Beyond its high-tech cities and bases, Mars offers thrilling safari adventures, with exclusive guided tours to the caldera of Olympus Mons, the depths of Valles Marineris, or other breathtaking sites for the ultra-wealthy.
■  Initial steps toward terraforming Mars are launched, dusting polar ice caps with black lichen to lower albedo and melt ice by absorbing more solar radiation, and deploying small automated halocarbon factories to release super-greenhouse gases into the Martian atmosphere, kickstarting atmospheric thickening.
■  The Free Spaceport of Phobos serves as the launch point for an international human mission to Jupiter’s Galilean moons, leveraging Phobos' microgravity for fuel-efficient departures to outer Solar system destinations.
■  Mars City expands with several smaller domes, enhancing its infrastructure and capacity, incorporating transparent panels for panoramic Martian views while maintaining pressurized, radiation-protected environments.
■  The old workhorse of human colonization of Mars – the Starship family spacecraft are fully retired, with the oldest models nearing 50 years of service, marking the end of the era of Martian pioneers.
■  Now almost all of the space-faring nations are represented on Mars with a base, a city district or a corporate enterprise.
■  A fleet of nuclear fusion-powered Earth-Mars cyclers is launched, offering regular, cost-effective transport for cargo and passengers between Earth and Mars.
■  In the 2070s, the human population on Mars surges from 40'000 to 150'000, with Mars City housing 50'000 residents and three other cities exceeding 15'000 each.

2080s – Mars gains self-governance

Autonomy dawns in the 2080s with the Martian Council's birth, population reaching 500'000 as domed metropolises interconnect via hyperloops and suborbital hops, positioning Phobos spaceport as a gateway for broader ventures into the outer Solar System.

■  Six Martian cities now feature large-scale domes, which shield residents from radiation and micrometeorites while enabling agriculture in controlled biospheres, and are interconnected by hyperloop lines or suborbital shuttle routes for seamless travel.
■  Space elevators first on the Moon and then on Earth become operational, drastically reducing the cost of launching materials to Mars and elsewhere into space, accelerating space resource utilization and colonization.
■  The first Martian Council, comprising proportionally elected representatives from every Martian city and base, is convened to ensure self-governance. The council addresses critical planet-wide issues, such as ongoing terraforming efforts and the potential construction of a Martian space elevator, while representing Martian interests in relations with Earth’s corporations and governments.
■  The Free Spaceport of Phobos serves as a vital supply hub for human outposts and missions to Ceres, the Main Asteroid Belt, and Jupiter’s moons.

■  Almost all colonists have left the oldest sections of former Mars Base Alpha with its obsolete infrastructure; the area is declared now a national heritage site, preserving the first human base on Mars as it was in the early 2050s. The site has a unique meaning to the Martian identity and also serves as a tourist attraction.
■  Despite controversy over human rights and isolation ethics in such remote facilities, China establishes the first Martian prison. Other colonies too discreetly begin transferring their criminals to this facility.
■  The Free Spaceport of Phobos acts as the launch point for an international human mission to Saturn’s moons, including Titan and Enceladus.
■  To mitigate environmental damage on Earth and leverage cheaper energy and materials in space, heavy, polluting industries are increasingly relocated to space and human colonies on Mars and other planetary bodies.
■  In the 2080s, the human population on Mars grows from 150'000 to 500'000, with Mars City surpassing 150'000 residents. A significant colonial fleet arrives in 2082, when Earth and Mars are at their closest since 2003, just 55.9 million kilometers (34.7 million miles) apart.

2090s – The millionth Martian

A quantum jump unfolds in the 2090s: Phobos' space elevator accelerates expansion, Pavonis shuttle port thrives as a nexus, tourism flourishes amid Olympus Mons and Valles Marineris, and humanity celebrates the millionth Martian.

■  A Phobos space elevator system, featuring connected base stations for downward and outward elevators, is constructed. The downward elevator extends to just above Mars’ atmosphere with a shuttle platform at its tip, while the outward elevator includes multiple platforms to facilitate payloads to Earth, the Main Asteroid Belt, and Jupiter’s system, significantly accelerating colonization of Mars, interplanetary trade and the growth of human outposts in Main Asteroid Belt and on Jupiter's moons.
■  A large shuttle port at the summit of Pavonis Mons, a 18km high Martian volcano practically on the equator, is established to service shuttles traveling to and from the Phobos space elevator.
■  Mars emerges as the primary supplier of food and fertilizers for human space outposts in the Main Asteroid Belt and beyond, as Mars is the closest object to them with natural sunlight and gravity, water and minerals needed for growing crops relatively cheaply.
■  Tourism from Earth becomes more accessible, with middle-class individuals now able to afford a trip to Mars.
■  Cyanobacteria and methanogens, selected for their extremophile resilience in low-pressure, CO2-rich environments, are distributed across Mars’ lower regions to advance the terraforming process, kickstarting oxygen production and global warming.
■  The shuttle port at the summit of Pavonis Mons rapidly expands into Pavonis City, one of Mars’ largest colonies, and soon is connected to other major Martian cities via hyperloop lines and suborbital shuttle routes.
■  Establishment of Pavonis City boosts tourism in some of the most spectacular Martian regions nearby – Tharsis Montes, Olympus Mons, Noctis Labyrinthus and Valles Marineris. Tourist bases and hotels emerging rapidly. A hyperloop line spans the entire length of Valles Marineris, the Solar System's grandest canyon spanning 4,000 km.
■  In the 2090s, the human population on Mars reaches 1 million, fulfilling the vision of Elon Musk, the "father" of Mars colonization.

22nd century – Mars achieves independence

Full sovereignty arrives in the 22nd century, as Mars forges a sovereign state with its citizens and currency, magnetic shields nurturing biospheres, strategic lowland colonies, and a populace exceeding 30 million, anchoring humanity as a solar-spanning civilization.

■  Mars attains near self-sufficiency, through advanced ISRU and closed-loop ecosystem management, relying on imports solely for highly specialized goods and intellectual property.
■  This self-reliance leads to Mars establishing itself as an independent nation-state. The Martian government acquires non-Martian governmental assets on the planet. All Martian-born children are granted automatic Martian citizenship, as well as all colonists residing on Mars for over one Martian year upon application.
■  The Martian government introduces the Mars dollar, a fully electronic, cashless currency, as the official medium of exchange.
■  As a technologically advanced frontier society, Mars and its orbiting stations become the primary source of skilled specialists and workers for human outposts in the Main Asteroid Belt and the outer Solar System.
■  Heavy industry is entirely prohibited on Earth to curb climate change and planetary pollution, shifting to space-based operations.

■  An artificial magnetic field generator is deployed at the Sun-Mars Lagrangian point L1 to shield Mars from solar radiation with a magnetotail, advancing the planet’s terraforming efforts.
■  Rising air pressure and temperature enable flowing water on Mars’ surface, allowing the introduction of simple plants into the emerging Martian biosphere.
■  Anticipating further air pressure and temperature increase, new human colonies are established primarily in Mars’ lower regions, notably Hellas Planitia and Valles Marineris, where terraforming benefits are most pronounced.
■  Valles Marineris, one of Mars’ lowest equatorial regions, reaps significant rewards from terraforming, proximity to the Phobos space elevator, and the capital of Mars – Pavonis City. Cities and farming communities proliferate, and by the century’s end, approximately 5 million people inhabit Valles Marineris, making it Mars’ most populous urban area.
■  In the 22nd century, the human population on Mars grows thirtyfold, driven mainly by sustained immigration and reaching over 30 million.

23rd century – Mars becomes one of Solar System's superpowers

Mars claims superpower status in the 23rd century, boasting revived oceans and endurable air pressure, a homegrown populace shaping its ethos, outward colonies, interplanetary conflict with Earth, and pioneering interstellar missions amid a boom to over 200 million souls.

■  Initially shallow oceans and seas in the lower reaches of the Martian surface are beginning to reappear.
■  Increased air pressure, rising temperatures, and reduced radiation levels allow humans to venture outside without pressure suits, requiring only breathing masks.
■  For the first time, the majority of Mars’ population is born on the planet, reinforcing a distinct Martian identity.
■  As the most technologically advanced nation-state with space-oriented heavy industry, Mars emerges as one of the superpowers of the Solar System.
■  Not without the deliberate influence of the Martian government, those human colonies in the outer Solar System, where the majority of the population is made up of former Martians, declare their loyalty to Mars and join the Martian Republic.
■  The first interplanetary military conflict between Earth and Mars over control of human colonies and natural resources in the outer Solar System.
■  The Martian Republic launches the first interstellar human mission to a nearby star system with potentially habitable planets.
■  In the 23rd century, the human population on Mars increases to more than 200 million, driven by both never-ending stream of immigrants and natural increase.

.. to be continued ..